Final Report:
I believe my theory is correct. It is a manufacturing defect in the radiator, not a leaking head gasket.
We re-assembled the radiator, using windshield adhesive instead of an O-ring, and re-bending the fingers on the lower tank. The tractor ran perfectly at full load for several hours, with no sign of overheating or a leaking head gasket. We did not see or smell any gas in the coolant. The temp gauge stayed at mid-scale.
Now it looks like we may have a similar problem with the upper tank. The lip on the tank is working its way out from under the fingers. You can see from this photo that the edge of the lip is right at the edge of the fingers. We have added a strap to hold the tank in place.

Many thanks for everyone's help.
I believe my theory is correct. It is a manufacturing defect in the radiator, not a leaking head gasket.
We re-assembled the radiator, using windshield adhesive instead of an O-ring, and re-bending the fingers on the lower tank. The tractor ran perfectly at full load for several hours, with no sign of overheating or a leaking head gasket. We did not see or smell any gas in the coolant. The temp gauge stayed at mid-scale.
Now it looks like we may have a similar problem with the upper tank. The lip on the tank is working its way out from under the fingers. You can see from this photo that the edge of the lip is right at the edge of the fingers. We have added a strap to hold the tank in place.

Many thanks for everyone's help.